In this research, Procrustes and Euclidean distance matrix analysis (EDMA) have been investigated for analysing the three-dimensional shape and form of the human back. Procrustes analysis is used to distinguish deformed backs from normal backs. EDMA is used to locate the changes occurring on the back surface due to spinal deformity (scoliosis, kyphosis and lordosis) for back deformity patients. A surface topography system, ISIS2 (Integrated Shape Imaging System 2), is available to measure the three-dimensional back surface. The system presents clinical parameters, which are based on distances and angles relative to certain anatomical landmarks on the back surface. Location, rotation and scale definitely influence these parameters. Although the anatomical landmarks are used in the present system to take some account of patient stance, it is still felt that variability in the clinical parameters is increased by the use of length and angle data. Patients also grow and so their back size, shape and form change between appointments with the doctor. Instead of distances and angles, geometric shape that is independent of location, rotation and scale effects could be measured. This research is mainly focusing on the geometric shape and form change in the back surface, thus removing the unwanted effects. Landmarks are used for describing back information and an analysis of the variability in positioning the landmarks has been carried out for repeated measurements. Generalized Procrustes analysis has been applied to all normal backs to calculate a mean Procrustes shape, which is named the standard normal shape (SNS). Each back (normal and deformed) is then translated, rotated and scaled to give a best fit with the SNS using ordinary Procrustes analysis. Riemannian distances are then estimated between the SNS and all individual backs. The highest Riemannian distance value between the normal backs and the SNS is lower than the lowest Riemannian distance value between the deformed backs and the SNS. The results shows that deformed backs can be differentiated from normal backs. EDMA has been used to estimate a mean form, variance-covariance matrix and mean form difference from all the normal backs. This mean form is named the standard normal form (SNF). The influence of individual landmarks for form difference between each deformed back and the SNF is estimated. A high value indicates high deformity on the location of that landmark and a low value close to 1 indicates less deformity. The result is displayed in a graph that provides information regarding the degree and location of the deformity. The novel aspects of this research lie in the development of an effective method for assessing the three-dimensional back shape; extracting automatic landmarks; visualizing back shape and back form differences.

Abstract Cropping allocations have normally been studied using frameworks that assume the existence of a representative farmer who cares about maximising gross margin. Evidence has shown that results obtained from these studies to predict cropping allocations in response to policy reforms are not satisfactory. On the other hand, an alternative research using multivariate models (i.e. models that consider economic and social-psychological variables to explain farmers’ behaviour) has been developed with the purpose of identifying farmers’ motivations to adopt specific environmental policies. However, this research has not been extended to study strategic cropping decisions. This is surprising given the fact that policy reforms strongly affect the allocation of crops when they are accompanied with the elimination of domestic distorting policies. The objective of this thesis is to fill this gap by proposing a novel holistic multivariate model designed exclusively to study farmers’ strategic cropping decisions. The proposed model integrates a number of alternative and complementary approaches that can explain farmers’ strategic behaviour. The model was applied to a sample of ex-sugar beet farmers in the West Midlands region of the UK to investigate the way in which these individuals adjusted to the Sugar Regime reform introduced on 20th February 2006. As a consequence of this reform, the sugar beet factory located in Allscott in Shropshire was closed and the sugar beet growers in this area adjusted by replacing sugar beet with alternative crops. Evidence has revealed that these farmers replaced sugar beet with crops with low gross margin such as oilseed. This choice is puzzling because other crops with high levels of gross margin such as carrots and parsnips were also available when the reform was implemented. The proposed multivariate model not only was useful to explain this choice, but also identified heterogeneous behavioural responses that no related research has identified so far.

The study investigates the deposition of a multilayer coating onto two aluminium alloys: Al 1050 and Al 6061. Of particular interest has been the treatment of the surface of both these samples for deposition of metallic coatings through a zincate based immersion process. The zinc immersion layer chemically displaces the oxide film on Al 1050 and Al 6061 and then zinc is deposited followed by nickel and chromium electrodeposition. Superior adhesion was associated with uniform, thin and fine grained deposits from Bondal solution which exhibited rapid and complete coverage of both aluminium samples. The metallurgical characteristics of the aluminium alloys and the processing sequence developed had a significant influence on the growth and morphology of the deposits from the Bondal solution and affected subsequent adhesion of electroplated nickel and chromium. This engendered the treated surface with sufficient catalytic nature to be able to receive a subsequent electroless nickel layer together with finishing layers of electrolytic nickel and chromium respectively. Due to the favourable physical properties of aluminium and its alloys (density, strength to weight ratio), there is a growing demand for nickel/chromium coated aluminium components for automotive and other applications. The most common method currently is to directly electroplate nickel onto the aluminium substrate. However, this can lead to problems with components having complex geometry in that chemical attack on the pretreated aluminium can occur in low current density areas before the substrate can be completely covered with nickel due to the acidic nature and high temperature of the nickel electroplating process. One way of preventing this current density related problem is to use an electroless nickel undercoat before the nickel/chromium deposit is applied. The mechanism by which this occurs is not fully understood and it is an objective of the current research to investigate the mechanism of nucleation of the electroless nickel layer on zincated aluminium. Results of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy showed that the zincated layer was dissolved in the electroless nickel bath but zinc was detected below 10 nm from the top surface of the homogenous nickel phosphorus film, while aluminium and alloying elements from both alloys have diffused into the film. Hexavalent chromium electroplating from chromic acid is under pressure due to its health hazard and environmental problems and is subjected to increasingly stringent control and legislation. Health and safety considerations have prompted the electroplating industry to consider alternatives to coating processes that involve hexavalent chromium. It is a further objective of the research to compare the properties of nickel/chromium coated aluminium with top coats of chromium deposited from hexavalent and trivalent (chloride based) electrolytes. Duplex nickel and chromium electrodeposition were modified with an electroless nickel undercoat, thus four coatings were studied for the aluminium samples. Results obtained from the hardness measurements of Al 1050 and Al 6061 were compared for four coatings. Hardness tests profiles obtained for Al 1050 and Al 6061 show that deposits from trivalent chromium electrolytes were not as hard as hexavalent chromium deposits. However, the hardness of duplex nickel/chromium coatings was improved by use of an electroless nickel undercoat. Scratch adhesion tests were focused on the failure mode of coatings evaluated on the basis of scratch channels, frictional force and acoustic emission signals. The adhesion test showed buckling and chipping of the coatings with no sign of spallation or delamination. Four coatings exhibited a higher critical load for both aluminium alloy samples. This confirmed that failure occurred within the coatings, rather than adhesive failure at the coating/substrate interface. Results obtained from copper acetic acid salt spray and electrochemical corrosion tests for Al 1050 and Al 6061 exhibited excellent corrosion resistance. Scanning electron microscope images showed initiation and propagation of small pits which did not coalesce to form large and deep craters that could result in the eventual failure of the coatings. Micro discontinuous chromium deposits spread the corrosion current, thus improving corrosion performance. Icorr values obtained from linear polarization corrosion tests show higher values for duplex nickel/chromium coatings on Al 1050 than Al 6061. Icorr values show similar trends for duplex nickel/chromium coating on Al 1050 and Al 6061 modified with an electroless nickel undercoat. In conclusion results showed a significant improvement in the chromium electroplating characteristics of Al 1050 and Al 6061 with an electroless nickel undercoat.

Ankle injuries are one of the most common injuries in sport, often leading to functional deficits and instability, a vicious cycle of recurrent sprains and time loss due to injury. Although research has been conducted on the best methods of treating such deficits and instability, new training methodologies are continually being sought to help improve clinical outcomes and with this comes a need for designed research to test such hypotheses. The purpose of the present research was to investigate the effect of vibration training on balance and muscle function in physically active individuals suffering self reported functional ankle instability (FAI). Stage one of the research was to initially investigate the effect of a six week whole body vibration training (WBVT) exercise routine on 38 University dancers reporting FAI. An initial assessment of the severity of the instability was done using the Cumberland Ankle Instability Tool (CAIT), to identify those who classed themselves functionally unstable but still able to participate in their chosen sport. The group was randomly arranged into one of two groups (treatment and control) and a pre/post test study was undertaken, with the control group asked to continue normal activity. The selection of participants was based on instability score from the CAIT. A larger sample of athletes was initially recruited across two accessible sports of football and dance due to access and availability. These groups then completed CAIT and where included if scoring criteria were met. The treatment group undertook six weeks of progressive vibration training on a stabile vibration system. Pre and post testing consisted of measures of static single leg balance, a Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT) and Electromyography (EMG) of peroneus longus in demi-pointe. Results indicated a significant improvement in static balance (p = .04) and certain SEBT directions within the treatment group compared to the control group (p <.05). Neither group reported any significant difference in mean power frequency for the peroneus longus (p >.05). The results of the study suggested six weeks vibration training improved certain balance parameters within FAI populations. These results although initially encouraging, identified the need for further research with not just a direct comparison between treatment and control, but a closer examination of the effect of vibration training in comparison to more classical methods of rehabilitation before it can be recommended as a serious methods of treatment for FAI. The second stage of the research involved the implementation of a new piece of rehabilitation equipment which combined a vibration unit within a wobble board (Vibrosphere TM, Sweden). The manufactures claim the combination of the two principles accelerates rehabilitation for numerous lower body injuries and disorders. This specially designed unit allowed direct analysis of the effect of the vibration component of the unit on balance and muscle function, by comparing those who used the combined vibration/wobble board and those who simply used the wobble board alone. A control group was also included to analyse any difference over time as the testing was done during a pre-season training cycle. The research consisted of 33 semi-professional footballers reporting FAI as confirmed by CAIT and taler tilt and an anterior drawer test, being randomly assigned to one of three groups; Vibration/wobble board, Wobble board alone and Control. Both Vibration/wobble board and Wobble board alone completed identical exercises on identical equipment so results could not be attributed to different equipment. The results of the study suggest a significant difference in static balance; modified SEBT and Single leg triple hop for distance between groups with the greatest improvement being within the combined vibration/wobble board group (p <.05). The results suggest the combination of vibration and wobble board improve balance and functional strength in those footballers reporting FAI compared to wobble board training alone. The precise mechanisms behind the current results are unclear. It has been suggested that it may be due to vibration having a positive effect on the stimulation of mechanoreceptors and the combination of that and unstable surface control seems to be optimal. It is difficult to compare studies but the research has highlighted certain areas for further research. The difference in static balance and SEBT scores between the dancers and footballers seems to suggest that the CAIT scores although similar may identify the need for more specific tests for each population. Also a longitudinal study is required to access injury rates following intervention and effect duration of the improvements seen.

This thesis investigates how the Conservative party coped with the far-reaching effects of democratic reform between 1867 and 1914. It analyses the performance of successive party leaders through their exploitation of high politics; and how ideology influenced their policy, and decision making. It also examines how the party’s organization was periodically revised to manage changing political circumstances. The relationships between these three elements, high politics, ideology, and organization are then analysed to explain the Conservative party’s appeal for electoral support during the period of study. The respective contributions made by the three elements to the party’s electoral performance are considered in relation to each other. Using this approach the thesis explains how the Conservative party managed to improve upon its dismal electoral record between 1832 and 1874; how it achieved electoral dominance between 1886 and 1906; and why its electoral fortunes declined so dramatically thereafter. The conclusions reached are threefold. Firstly, the importance attached to high politics by the Peterhouse school of thought may, in some respects, be exaggerated, certainly regarding elections. High politics, by its very nature seeks to exert influence at a level far removed from the mass electorate. Political rhetoric has obvious uses during elections, not least in the field of extra-parliamentary speech-making. But in the absence of any reliable indicators of what the electorate actually felt or desired, the effectiveness of political rhetoric could not be gauged a priori. The results of political manoeuvring at the highest levels may have been apparent to voters, but was of little concern to them. At worst, they were ignorant of it, and at best, ambivalent to it. Secondly, party leaders, whether knowingly or unknowingly, exploited the flexibility of Conservative ideology in their quest for votes. However, the core concepts of that ideology remained inviolable, only contingent values were successfully subjected to re-appraisal and revision to attract the voters. When ideological core values were misunderstood or misinterpreted the party suffered accordingly. Thirdly, the value of the Conservative party’s organization has been underestimated. High politics and ideology may have combined to produce a Conservative message for the voters, but the appeal of that message was unknowable. On the other hand, the party’s organization, when empowered to do so, adroitly and effectively utilized all the tools available to them to manage and maximize all potential Conservative support. Organization may be viewed as a make-weight, but like all make-weights it possessed the power to tip the electoral scales one way or the other.

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are estimated to form approximately 5% of the human genome. While the majority of sequences are defective, containing premature stop mutations and frameshift mutations, a number encode fully functional proteins. HERVs have been proposed as aetiological agents for a variety of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus, and multiple sclerosis (MS), and have been detected in a variety of tumours. The study aims to develop tools to detect and investigate human endogenous retroviruses in order to establish their roles in MS and anaplastic astrocytomas. A method of detecting and quantifying levels of HERV-W env messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and MSRV gag by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain (RT-PCR) reaction in a variety of cell lines was developed, with PCR products detected in all cell lines tested, and in particular, high levels of transcription occurring in the BeWo choriocarcinoma cell line. In the astrocytoma cell lines, those with P53 mutation had higher levels of HERV-W env. MSRV gag variants were also detected in these cell lines, but stimulation with interferon-γ, a proinflammatory cytokine, did not alter expression significantly. An antibody against an epitope of MSRV gag has been successfully developed, purified and tested to determine the expression of a predicted linear epitope. This epitope was recognised in all cell lines tested, but unusually for a HERV showed nuclear expression. Further analysis is needed to confirm the identity of the protein detected. Finally a number of retroviral peptides with homology to putative antigens were predicted using a novel bioinformatics approach, of which two, HERV-W env 412 and MSAV gag 274, were tested in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of plasma samples from MS patients, patients with other neurological diseases and normal healthy donors. No significant differences in antibody titres were found between the sample groups for either peptide.

This thesis presents the Ph.D. research from the initial stages of investigation, to design and development of an intelligent architecture for vehicles. It was identified that vehicles, intelligent transport systems (ITS) and infrastructure lack a shared platform that allows them to be integrated and work together. With a robust and intelligent framework, distributed ITS can work and improve traffic efficiency. If these gaps are addressed, then they can provide reductions in cost, space and integration opportunities for enhanced functionality as well as additional services. As a part of this research a novel framework was developed, and two ITS systems were integrated such that remote communication with the infrastructure was achieved. Evaluation of this framework indicated that information can be shared across vehicle systems and other ITS systems could be added to the network to improve performance, safety and enforcement. To support the framework design, a Traffic Improvement Algorithm (TIA) was developed that improves traffic efficiency. This was validated using micro simulation tool that showed improvement in traffic efficiency when the algorithm was used. When bringing new technology into the market, there are some fundamental influencing factors affecting the selection and development prior to entering the end-user market. These factors are often neglected, and the current market lacks the ability to analyse the time it would take the new technology to come into the market. As a part of this research, a toolkit was developed that helps in estimating the time the technology takes to penetrate the market.

Platelets are known to play a key role in acute coronary events, such as myocardial infarction, associated with advanced atherosclerosis, but a number of papers have recently been published suggesting that platelet adhesion may initiate atherosclerotic lesion formation. The proposed research aimed to investigate this by seeing whether platelet adhesion occurred, directly or via leukocytes, to the endothelium in diabetic conditions. Diabetic-like conditions were chosen because an accelerated rate of lesion formation occurs. This was achieved by incubating endothelial cells with high concentrations of glucose and various types of AGEs. Bovine serum albumin of different purity, a peptide of albumin, and haemoglobin were glycated with D-glucose. Samples were taken at 2 weeks intervals to allow for determining the extent of glycation and allowing for investigation into whether the extent of glycation affected platelet adhesion. It also made possible analysis of extent of glycation, to see whether these have a relation to endothelial dysfunction (including cell proliferation, cell adhesion molecule expression, and ROS and cytokine production). There are discrepancies in the finding of studies looking into the effect of AGEs on the endothelium and there are no reported studies looking at cytokine production. As such, it was hoped that this research would allow for a greater understanding of the processes involved and whether endothelial dysfunction could account for accelerated lesion formation associated with diabetes. As a whole, the research intended to explore the hypothesis that platelet adhesion to the endothelium is required for foam cell formation and their development into atherosclerotic lesions. It aimed to see whether hyperglycaemia and the presence of high levels of AGEs induces endothelial dysfunction and therefore increases monocyte adhesion by the presence of activated platelets. In doing so, a greater understanding of the processes involved in accelerated lesion formation would allow for targeted research to allow for treatments to reduce foam cell deposition. This could be the use of a cocktail of anti-platelet drugs or ones that reduce endothelial dysfunction. This would reduce the manifestation of cardiovascular disease and therefore improve diabetic patient life as well as reduce the cost of treatment for the NHS, and therefore for the tax payer.

Reproducibility of third level fingerprint detail is important in personal identification. The effect of different substrates on the reproducibility of pore dimensions in inked reference fingerprints was investigated. Photomicrographs of reference prints were taken and pore area was measured repeatedly using appropriate software. Reproducibility of pore area was also studied in latent prints. Latent prints were deposited on chosen absorbent and non-absorbent surfaces and developed using Cyanoacrylate and Ninhydrin to determine pore area reproducibility. Photomicrographs of ridged skin were captured directly by focusing under microscope and pore area reproducibility in these images was studied. Live scans were also included in the study to see if pore area can be relied upon in live scans at 500ppi (pixels per inch). Results revealing best third level detail in inked prints were achieved by deposition onto a variety of non-absorbent substrates but inter-print variation indicated that pore area in inked prints deposited onto paper substrates cannot be used reliably in personal identification. In case of latent prints, variation was greater than normal acceptable limits suggesting that pore area is not reproducible in latent prints developed using Cyanoacrylate and Ninhydrin techniques. Results of direct microscopic images also showed too great inter-image variation which has further supported the unreliability of pore area as a tool in personal identification. Live scans at 500ppi did not prove to be useful in providing good pore detail for study. This study casts doubt on the use of pore area as a reliable identification tool in personal identification and suggests raising the scanning resolution to study pore detail in live scans.

The bioremediation of modelled petroleum oil-contaminated soils of the Niger Delta by a mixed culture of three hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria, Acinetobacter sp, Rhodococcus sp and Pseudomonas sp, was investigated. These bacterial strains were selected based on criteria that they were able to utilize hydrocarbons (hexadecane and sodium benzoate) as the sole source of carbon and energy and were able to show significant growth in crude oil at an optimum temperature of 30oC. For maximal bacterial growth and degradation effective aeration and agitation was required, thus the choice of the shake flask method over the bioscreen growth analyzer for this investigation. The influence of hexadecane concentrations (0.5%, 1.0% and 2.0%) on the bacterial isolates was investigated and it revealed that the Rhodococcus sp because of its different metabolic pathway showed a more rapid growth on hexadecane concentrations as compared Pseudomonas sp and Acinetobacter sp. Amongst the bacterial isolates, Pseudomonas sp exhibited a more rapid growth on 0.5% sodium benzoate while the two others showed minimal growth. Pseudomonas sp Rhodococcus sp and Acinetobacter sp showed a synergistic association when grown on basal salt medium supplemented with 1.0% w/v petroleum crude oil. The influences of a zeolite (clinoptilolite), soil structure and particle size on biodegradation of crude oil in modelled silt-clay and sandy soil of Niger Delta was investigated. Soils from the Hilton site, East-Shropshire, United Kingdom were used for the Niger Delta soils formulation. Geochemical properties of the soil samples from the x-ray fluorescence showed major elements are sodium, magnesium, aluminum, potassium, iron with silicon having high percentage, while x-ray diffraction analysis revealed minerals such as quartz, kaolinite, illite and smectite, which are similar to those of the Niger Delta. The preliminary investigation showed a more rapid and greater extent of apparent oil removal with the addition of both bacterial consortium and clinoptilolite on soil amendment experiments at 30oC for a period of 30 days. There was 79% oil removal by the bacterial consortium in the soil amended with clinoptilolite as compared to 67% in the case of the amended soils without clinoptilolite. Although the addition of both bacterial consortium and clinoptilolite enhanced the removal of the crude oil, however the effect of clinoptilolite may be one of abiotic removal. The soil structure investigation without clinoptilolite augmentation showed that oil removal in the silt-clay soil was significantly greater than that of the sandy II soil after 30 days period (p< 0.0001). There was 72.7% ± 0.8% oil removal by the bacterial consortium in the silt-clay soil as compared to 55.6% ± 0.7% in the case of the sandy soil. However, there was 79.1% ± 0.4% oil removal by the bacterial consortium in the silt-clay soil amended with clinoptilolite as compared to 67.3% ± 0.8% in the case of the amended sandy soils with clinoptilolite. Gas chromatographic profile showed appreciable reductions in hydrocarbon, the rate of which depended upon the particular hydrocarbon. Quantitative analysis of residual oil extract from the silt-clay and sandy soil amended with and without zeolite showed a high rate of degradation for lighter hydrocarbon components (C10– C18) compared to the heavier ones (C24 – C28) by the bacterial consortium. Hydrocarbon components (C10– C18) from both silty-clay and sandy soils amended with zeolite were degraded by the bacterial consortium to 92.1% - 57.7% and 74% - 43.7% respectively, while the soils without zeolite showed degradation rate of 80.4% - 44.8% (silt-clay) and 69.4% - 42.8% (sandy). Hydrocarbon components (C24– C28) from both soils showed an apparent low rate of degradation. The results of this study indicate that the application of the bacterial consortium and clinoptilolite lead to greater rates of biodegradation in the clay soil then in the sandy soil. Studies showed that nutrient addition and aeration both affected the rate of hydrocarbon utilization. The postulated application of selected bacteria in the bioaugumentation of oil contaminated environment in the Niger Delta region was discussed.