• “Catching” emotions: Emotion regulation in sport dyads

      Friesen, Andrew P. (2013-06-01)
      The purpose of the present research programme was to inform the development and subsequent delivery of an intervention to enhance interpersonal emotion regulation. Although emotion regulation has been emphasised due to its importance in explaining performance and well-being, the focus of research has predominantly been on intrapersonal emotion regulation. The present study addressed the dual-gap in research by extending research in interpersonal emotion regulation in general and developing and testing theory-led interventions for use in sport. A three-stage programme of research was set up with stage one reviewing the extant literature before proposing a social-functional approach to emotions, and in particular the Emotions As Social Information (EASI) model, as possible theoretical frameworks for use in sport. Qualitative methods were emphasised as these are particularly useful in studies seeking to identify mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of interventions. Stage two began with a narrative analysis to outline the potential social functions and consequences of emotional expressions, verbalisations, and actions in ice hockey. Two ice hockey players, each captain of their respective team, participated in semi-structured interviews. Participants described how emotions informed them of important circumstances in their environment that required attention and prepared them for such challenges at the individual level. At a dyadic level, emotions helped participants understand the emotional states and intentions of their teammates contributing toward an assessment of the extent to which they were prepared to face their challenges. At a group level, emotions helped participants lead their teammates in meeting team goals. Finally, at the cultural level, emotions helped participants maintain culture-related identities. Stage two continued with examining the processes, strategies used, and potential moderating factors in interpersonal emotion regulation among 16 ice hockey players from an English professional league. An inductive and deductive analysis revealed 22 distinct strategies used to regulate teammates’ emotions. These were distinguished between strategies that were verbal or behavioural in nature. They were further distinguished between strategies employed to initiate interpersonal emotion regulation through affective and cognitive channels. Moderating factors in the interpersonal emotion regulation process were consistent with the EASI model. Stage three involved the development, delivery and assessment of the intervention. A British ice hockey team was recruited and the intervention was delivered over the course of three competitive seasons. The primary intervention goal was to improve interpersonal emotion regulation as evidenced by being able to accurately identify when an emotion regulation strategy was needed, and select and use a strategy that changed emotions in the direction and strength intended (Webb, Miles, & Sheeran, 2012). Given the link between emotion and performance, it was expected that the intervention would bring about improvements in individual and team performance. Techniques to bring about change comprised of brief contact interventions, dressing room debriefs, feedback from emotional intelligence assessments, and the practitioner managing himself as an intervention tool. The merit of the intervention was judged through practitioner reflections, social validity assessments, pre- and post-intervention measures of emotional intelligence and performance. Collectively, the present research programme contributes to the emotion regulation literature not only in sport, but also in psychology in general. A key achievement of the programme has been the development of a theoretically sound but ecologically valid intervention designed to improve the interpersonal emotion regulation skills of athletes. Although the intervention primarily catered to the needs of the current team and utilised the professional philosophy of the researcher-practitioner, the intervention provides support for enhanced performance derived from theory explaining a social-functional account of emotions. Future research might use the theory and approach to testing the theory in different sports to examine the role of each sport sub-culture on interpersonal emotion regulation.
    • Construct Validity of the Profile of Mood States

      Lane, Andrew M.; Terry, Peter C.; Fogarty, Gerard (Elsevier, 2007)
      Objectives: The purpose of the present study was to extend the validation of the Profile of Mood States-Adolescents (POMS-A: Terry, P. C., Lane, A. M., Lane, H. J., & Keohane, L. (1999). Development and validation of a mood measure for adolescents. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 861-872) from adolescent to adult populations. Design: A strategy of assessing the invariance of the POMS-A factor structure among disparate samples and of testing relationships with concurrent measures was used. Methods: The POMS-A was administered to 2,549 participants from four samples: Adult athletes prior to competition (n = 621), adult student athletes in a classroom (n = 656), adolescent athletes prior to competition (n = 676), and adolescent students in a classroom (n = 596). A subset of 382 adult student athletes was used to test the criterion validity of the POMS-A. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the factorial validity of a 24-item, six-factor model using both independent and multi-sample analyses. Relationships between POMS-A scores and previously validated measures, that were consistent with theoretical predictions, supported criterion validity. Conclusion: Supporting evidence was found that the psychometric integrity of the POMS-A extended from adolescent to adult populations.
    • Development and initial validation of the Music Mood-Regulation Scale.

      Hewston, Ruth M.; Lane, Andrew M.; Karag, Costas I. (Melbourne, Australia: Swinburne University, 2008)
      This study designed a measure to assess the perceived effectiveness of music as a strategy to regulate mood among a sport and exercise population. A strategy of assessing and comparing the integrity of competing hypotheses to explain the underlying factor structure of the scale was used. A 21-item Music Mood-Regulation Scale (MMRS) was developed to assess the extent to which participants used music to alter the mood states of anger, calmness, depression, fatigue, happiness, tension, and vigor. Volunteer sport and exercise participants (N = 1,279) rated the perceived effectiveness of music to regulate each MMRS item on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the integrity of four competing models, and results lend support to a correlated 7-factor structure for the MMRS (RCFI = .94; RMSEA = .06). Cronbach alpha coefficients were in the range of 0.74 – 0.88 thus demonstrating the internal reliability of scales. It is suggested that the MMRS shows promising degrees of validity. Future research should assess the extent to which individuals can develop the ability to use music as a strategy to regulate mood in situations in which disturbed mood might be detrimental to performance.
    • Distinctions between Emotion and Mood

      Lane, Andrew M.; Beedie, Chris; Terry, Peter C. (Taylor & Francis, 2007)
      Most academics agree that emotions and moods are related but distinct phenomena. The present study assessed emotion-mood distinctions among a non-academic population and compared these views with distinctions proposed in the literature. Content analysis of responses from 106 participants identified 16 themes, with cause (65% of respondents), duration (40%), control (25%), experience (15%) and consequences (14%) the most frequently cited distinctions. Among 65 contributions to the academic literature, eight themes were proposed, with duration (62% of authors), intentionality (41%), cause (31%), consequences (31%) and function (18%) the most frequently cited. When the eight themes cited by both academics and non-academics were rank ordered, approximately 60% overlap in opinion was evident. A data-derived summary of emotion-mood distinctions is provided. These data should prove useful to investigators interested in developing a clearer scientific distinction between emotion and mood than is currently available.
    • Effects of rapid weight loss on mood and performance among amateur boxers.

      Hall, C.J.; Lane, Andrew M. (BMJ Publishing Group, 2001)
      AIMS: To examine the effects of rapid weight loss on mood and performance among amateur boxers. METHODS: Participants were 16 experienced amateur boxers. In stage 1, structured interviews were used to assess the type of strategies that boxers used to reduce weight and the value of performing at their desired weight in terms of performance. In stage 2, boxers completed a 4 x 2 minute (1 minute recovery) circuit training session. Boxers completed the circuit training session on three different occasions with a week between each. The first test was used to familiarise the boxers with the circuit training task; the second and third tasks were at their training weight and championship weight, respectively. Participants were given one week to reduce their body weight to their championship weight using their preferred weight making strategies; boxers reduced their body weight by an average of 5.16% of body weight. RESULTS: Boxers typically lost weight by restricting fluid and food intake in the week leading to competition. Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance results indicated that rapid weight loss among boxers was associated with poor performance, increased anger, fatigue, and tension, and reduced vigour. CONCLUSIONS: Strategies used to make weight by boxers are associated with poor performance and a negative mood profile.
    • Emotional states of athletes prior to performance-induced injury

      Devonport, Tracey J.; Lane, Andrew M.; Hanin, Yuri (Asist Group, 2005)
      Psychological states experienced by athletes prior to injured, best and worst performances were investigated retrospectively using a mixed methodology. Fifty-nine athletes volunteered to complete an individualized assessment of performance states based on the Individual Zones of Optimal fFunctioning (IZOF) model. A subsection (n = 30) of participants completed a standardized psychometric scale (Brunel Mood Rating Scale: BRUMS), retrospectively describing how they felt before best, worst, and injured performances. IZOF results showed similar emotion states being identified for injured and best performances. Analysis of BRUMS scores indicated a significant main effect for differences in mood by performance outcome, with post-hoc analyses showing best performance was associated with lower scores on depression and fatigue and higher vigor than injured performance and worst performance. Worst performance was associated with higher fatigue and confusion than injured performance. Results indicate that retrospective emotional profiles before injured performance are closer to successful performance, than unsuccessful, and confirm differences between successful and unsuccessful performance. Qualitative and quantitative approaches used to retrospectively assess pre-performance emotional states before three performance outcomes, produced complimentary findings. Practical implications of the study are discussed.
    • Modelling mood states in athletic performance

      Cockerill, I. M.; Nevill, Alan M.; Lyons, Noel (Routledge, 1991)
      Because moods are transitory emotional states that can be influenced by a range of personality and environmental factors, the notion that elite athletes will always tend to produce a so-called iceberg profile of mood, and that less successful performers will not, is open to question. Evidence for such a claim is based principally upon descriptive studies. The present experiment used the POMS inventory as a predictor of cross-country running performance among a group of experienced male athletes. Race times from two competitive events were plotted against each of six mood factors. Using data from race 1, a multiple-regression model - incorporating the interdependence of tension, anger and depression - was able to predict rank order of finishing positions for race 2 with acceptable accuracy (rs = 0.74, P <0.01). The present approach differs from the traditional model of mood research in sport in that it provides a prescriptive, rather than a descriptive, focus. Although the model that has been developed appears promising, it is likely that in sports where demands on athletes are very different from those made upon cross-country runners, an alternative model may be required.
    • Mood and concentration grid performance: effects of depressed mood

      Lane, Andrew M.; Terry, Peter C.; Beedie, Chris; Stevens, Matthew (Fitness Information Technology, 2004-01-01)
      The current study tested Lane and Terry’s (2000) proposal that depressed mood moderates anger-performance and tension-performance relationships. One hundred and thirty-six male sport students completed the 24-item Brunel Mood Scale followed by a concentration grid test. Participants were dichotomized into depressed mood (n = 59) and no depression (n = 77) groups. Structural equation modeling showed that mood predicted 41% of performance variance in the no-depression group and 31% in the depressed-mood group. As hypothesized, anger was associated with good performance in the no-depression group and poor performance in the depressedmood group, supporting the notion that depressed mood moderates the angerperformance relationship. Contrary to expectations, tension scores showed no significant relationship with performance in either group. Future research should continue to investigate the mechanisms underlying mood-performance relationships
    • Mood and Human Performance: Conceptual, Measurement, and Applied Issues.

      Lane, Andrew M. (Nova Publishers, 2006)
      Situations that are perceived to be personally important typically evoke intense mood states and emotions; individuals will try to control mood states and emotions, and mood and emotions influence our thoughts and behaviours. Providing the sound knowledge base is a driving factor behind a great deal of the ensuing research and forms the content of many of the chapters of this book. The book covers many aspects of mood in performance settings. Chapters focus on the nature of mood, the validity of mood measures and applied research. Theoretical issues on the nature of mood and a conceptual model of mood-performance relationships in sport is reviewed. Chapters include research on relationships between mood and performance, motivation, coping strategies, personality, eating attitudes, humour, and emotional intelligence. Mood responses to intense exercise, extreme environments, aqua-massage, and interventions to enhance mood are also covered. Each chapter provides recommendations for future research.
    • Mood Matters: A response to Mellalieu

      Lane, Andrew M.; Beedie, Chris; Stevens, Matthew (Taylor & Francis, 2005)
      Psychological states such as mood, emotion, and affect have recently received a great deal of attention in the sport psychology literature (Hanin, 2000, 2003; Lane & Terry, 2000; Lazarus, 2000; Mellalieu, 2003). Lane and Terry (2000) proposed a definition of mood and a conceptual model of mood and performance with a focus on depression. Mellalieu (2003) provided detailed commentary and analysis of this work. We argue that although Mellalieu’s paper raised several important and justifiable concerns, in doing so it is arguably moving knowledge in circles rather than forwards. The present paper thus provides a response to Mellalieu’s commentary with reference to recent research.
    • Mood, mileage and the menstrual cycle

      Cockerill, I. M.; Nevill, Alan M.; Byrne, N. C. (BMJ Publishing, 1992)
      Forty women took part in a study to determine the effects of high-intensity training and the menstrual cycle on mood states. Half of the sample were competitive distance runners following a training load of between 50 km and 130 km running per week. Seven athletes were amenorrhoeic and 13 either eumenorrhoeic or oligomenorrhoeic. The remaining 20 subjects were inactive women who menstruated regularly. The mean age of all 40 subjects was 29 years. Each subject completed two identical Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaires. The 33 menstruating subjects completed both a premenstrual and a midcycle form and the amenorrhoeic athletes completed the questionnaires at a 3-week interval, which acted as a control for the potential effects of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) among the menstruating females. Results showed highly significant differences in mood profiles among amenorrhoeic athletes, non-amenorrhoeic athletes and inactive women. The greatest difference was between premenstrual and midcycle measures for the inactive group. PMS appears to cause marked negative mood swings among menstruating women which the POMS inventory is sensitive in detecting. While the lowerintensity- training runners appeared to benefit psychologically from a training distance of approximately 50km week-', high-intensity training had an adverse effect on mood.
    • Online mood profiling and self-regulation of affective responses

      Lane, Andrew M.; Terry, P. C.; Schinke, Robert J.; McGannon, Kerry R.; Smith, Brett (Routledge, 2016-02)
      The link between affective responses and performance in sports is well established (Beedie, Terry, & Lane, 2000; Hanin, 1997, 2010) and it is not uncommon for athletes to attribute poor performance to an inability to get into the right mood or to keep their emotions in check. Such reflections suggest that individuals are able to identify an optimal mindset for performance and that self-regulation of psychological states is a feature of preparation for competition. The present chapter explores strategies that athletes might use to generate their optimal mindset, including an online method of mood profiling that enables athletes to monitor how they feel, to consider whether that is how they want to feel, and offers suggested self-regulation strategies.
    • The role of biological rhythms and blood glucose levels in maintaining a positive mood state.

      Morris, Neil; Wink, Brian; Hogan, Kevin; Martino, Orsolina I. (University of Wolverhampton, 2008)
      Although the effects of both the menstrual and circadian cycles on mood have been well documented, the question of whether the two interact to influence mood has not yet been addressed, despite evidence for such an interaction on other variables. Blood sugar level is a major contributor to the mediation of mood and is easily regulated by dietary intervention; there is also evidence that it is influenced by both the menstrual and circadian cycles. The present research takes a positive psychological approach to managing mood; the aims were to identify where natural variations in mood occur in relation to its underlying physiology, taking an applied approach to suggest ways of effectively managing positive mood and maintaining psychological well-being. A series of studies was carried out to measure fluctuations in mood in relation to biological rhythms, and in response to cognitively demanding situations and simple interventions. Mood was measured throughout the research using the UWIST Mood Adjective Checklist. The most consistent results were in relation to the Energetic Arousal dimension. This was shown to be influenced by both the menstrual cycle and the time of day, as well as an interaction between these two factors, and was consistently related to changes in blood glucose levels. Energetic Arousal also appeared to be more sensitive to the effectsof the suggested interventions. Diurnal changes in mood throughout the course of a normal day were more evident among women in their premenstrual to menstrual phases, and also become more apparent in response to cognitive tasks. Trait Anxiety was a mediating factor in how individuals reacted to such tasks. Mood was closely related to blood glucose levels, and raising blood glucose to a robust but safe level effectivelyenhanced positive mood in cognitively demanding situations. Oral contraceptives generally tended to eliminate menstrual cycle-related effects on mood and responses to intervention. It was concluded that mood states among healthy women are influenced by a complex interplay between biological rhythms, physiological states, individual differences and the context in which these moods take place. Simple interventions that can easily be incorporated into one’s daily routine may be efficacious in maintaining a positive mood state, which has beneficial implications for psychological well-being.
    • Trait Emotional Intelligence: Evaluating the theoretical construct, its relationship to other psychological variables, and potential interventions to enhance it.

      Nauheimer, Elke (2015)
      Research suggests that there are now two distinct approaches to Emotional Intelligence (EI): ability and trait. To date, however, the literature indicates that the construct remains poorly defined and not always adequately measured. Focusing on trait EI, the current thesis identifies a number of research questions that centre on what it is that defines EI in relation to existing definitions and other constructs, namely, happiness, self-esteem, mood and personality. Moreover, a programme of empirical study investigates whether a training intervention can enhance levels of EI and thus contribute to the emerging applied field of enquiry. This has been achieved through the employment of a series of studies. The initial study used the Repertory Grid Technique (RGT) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to generate a definition of EI, which directed this thesis towards alignment with the trait approach. The second study aimed to identify correlations and explore possible predictor variables through the application of Pearson’s r and Hierarchical Regression analysis. Moreover, a Mediation and Moderation analysis investigated whether EI has a mediating or moderating role when combined with other predictors. Two further experimental studies examined whether EI could be experimentally enhanced through a programme of relaxation and positive thinking when compared with a control group engaged in a non-demanding reading task. The results of the first study produced a definition of EI that included descriptions of work-related qualities with the second study yielding results of high correlations between EI, happiness and self-esteem, which were also identified as predictor variables. EI was found to act as a mediator and moderator. Analysis of Variance generated results for the first experimental study that showed overall non-significant interactions. To investigate beyond these findings, the second programme showed that the training programme induced positive changes. It was concluded that, overall, the results contribute to a definition beyond existing definitions of EI, demonstrating EI’s strong associations particularly with happiness, self-esteem and, its mediating and moderating role with other predictors. Primarily, the results from the second experimental study demonstrate the potential of EI in the applied field, including education, work and health.