• Ankle and foot contributions to extreme plantar- and dorsiflexion in female ballet dancers.

      Russell, Jeffrey A.; Shave, Ruth M; Kruse, David W.; Koutedakis, Yiannis; Wyon, Matthew A. (American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society, Inc., 2011)
      Background: Female ballet dancers require extreme ankle motion. The objective of this study was to quantify the relative contributions of the ankle and various foot joints to extreme plantarflexion (PF) and dorsiflexion (DF) in female ballet dancers using an X-ray superimposition technique and digital graphics software. Materials and Methods: One asymptomatic ankle was studied in each of seven experienced female ballet dancers. Three lateral weightbearing X-rays were taken of each ballet dancer's ankle: en pointe (maximum PF), in neutral position, and in demi-plié (maximum DF). Using graphics software, a subject's three X-ray images were superimposed and the tali were aligned. On each image the tibia, navicular, intermediate cuneiform, and first metatarsal were marked. Positional differences of a bone's line among the three images demonstrated angular movement of the bone in degrees. The neutral position was the reference from which both PF and DF of the bones were calculated. Results: The talocrural joint contributed the most motion of any pair of bones evaluated for both PF and DF, with mean movements of 57.6 ± 5.2 degrees en pointe and 24.6 ± 9.6 degrees in demi-plié. Approximately 70% of total PF and DF were attributable to the talocrural joint, with the remaining 30% coming from motion between adjacent pairs of the studied foot bones. Conclusion: Superimposed X-rays for assessing ankle and foot contributions to the extreme positions required of female ballet dancers offer insight into how these positions are attained that is not available via goniometry. Clinical Relevance: Functional information gained from this study may assist clinicians in assessessing ankle and foot pain in these individuals.
    • Anthropometric factors affecting vertical jump height in ballet dancers

      Wyon, Matthew A.; Allen, Nick; Angioi, Manuela; Nevill, Alan M.; Twitchett, Emily (International Association for Dance Medicine and Science, 2006)
      Jumping plays an integral part of ballet performance and this study examines some of the ballet dancer’s characteristics that influence jump height. Forty-nine dancers (M = 21; F = 28) completed a series of tests that included two footed vertical jump height, single leg vertical jump height and anthropometric measurements. Supplemental training history and company position were also recorded. Statistical analysis (ANCOVA and MANOVA) indicated males had a greater vertical jump height than females (p < 0.01) and soloist and first artists had significantly greater vertical jump height than principals and artists for both male and females (p < 0.05). Anthropometric data indicated males having significantly larger leg girths than females. Males and females had no significant bilateral differences in girth measurements though male artists had significantly smaller thighs and calves than the other seniority levels (p < 0.05). Supplemental training did not influence jump height in this study’s population though males carried out significantly more weight training (p < 0.01) and females more aerobic training (p < 0.05). When jump height was analyzed in relation to cross-sectional area of the calf and thigh, there was no gender difference (p > 0.05). These results corroborate to previous research and also provide greater insight on how anthropometric and choreographic factors potentially influence vertical jump height in ballet dancers. The ineffective influence of supplemental training on vertical jump height needs greater examination. How other training regimens could influence jump height in dancers needs to be examined.
    • "Burnout” in Dance: the physiological viewpoint

      Koutedakis, Yiannis (International Association for Dance Medicine & Science, 2000)
    • The Effect of a Comprehensive Injury Audit Program on Injury Incidence in Ballet: A 3-Year Prospective Study.

      Allen, Nick; Nevill, Alan M.; Brooks, John H M; Koutedakis, Yiannis; Wyon, Matthew A. (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2013-04-03)
      OBJECTIVE:: The aim of this study was to determine whether an intervention with individualized conditioning program based on injury history and functional movement screening would be effective in reducing ballet injury incidence. DESIGN:: Prospective 3-year epidemiological study. SETTING:: Professional Ballet Company and its in-house medical facility. PARTICIPANTS:: Dancers from a professional ballet company over the 3-year study period. Participant numbers ranged from 52 to 58 (year 1: 52; year 2: 58; year 3: 53). INTERVENTIONS:: The intervention consisted of individual conditioning programs developed using injury history and functional movement screening. Analysis was undertaken of the all dancers who were present in the company during the study period. The significance of change in injuries over a 3-year period was determined using a Poisson distribution model. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES:: To determine whether individual conditioning programs resulted in a decrease in injury incidence over the study period. RESULTS:: The injury count reduced significantly in years 2 and 3 (P < 0.001). Injury incidence for male dancers declined from year 1 (in year/1000 h) (4.76/1000 h) to year 2 (2.40/1000 h) and year 3 (2.22/1000 h). For women, a reduction in the injury incidence was observed from year 1 (4.14/1000 h) to year 2 (1.71/1000 h) and year 3 (1.81/1000 h). CONCLUSIONS:: Through prospective injury surveillance, we were able to demonstrate the benefit of individualized conditioning programs based on injury history and functional movement screening in reducing injuries in ballet. CLINICAL RELEVANCE:: The implementation of well-structured injury surveillance programs can impact on injury incidence through its influence on intervention programs.
    • Effect of Leg Length on ROM, VJ and Leg Dexterity in Dance

      Wyon, Matthew; Nevill, Alan M.; Dekker, K.; Brown, D. D.; Clarke, Frances; Pelly, J.; Koutedakis, Yiannis (Georg Thieme Verlag, 2010)
      We investigated the associations between leg length and specific ballet movements in different skill groups. Volunteers were from an undergraduate dance programme (n=18), a pre-professional school (n=43) and from an elite classical ballet company (n=45). Individual data were collected for anthropometry, vertical jump, leg dexterity, and leg active and passive ROM. ANCOVA identified both main effects as significant with regard to vertical jump (gender P<0.001 and skill P=0.017); leg length was also identified as a significant covariate (P=0.023). Analysis of leg dexterity identified no significant effects with gender, skill or leg length. Active and passive range of motion noted gender (P=0.001) and skill (P<0.001) differences. Leg length was found to be negatively associated with both active and passive ROM (P=0.002). In conclusion, the present data highlight the diverse and conflicting effects of leg length on fundamental ballet skills. The longer legs that benefit vertical jump have a negative influence on range of motion and leg dexterity except for highly skilled skilled dancers, who through skill, seem to have overcome the effects of some of these dichotomies.
    • The effects of whole body vibration training on vertical jump height in dancers: A systematic review with meta-analysis

      Donida, Rebeca Gimenes; Delabary, Marcela dos Santos; Bittar, Adriano; Wyon, Matthew; Haas, Aline Nogueira (National Dance Society, 2020-09-16)
      Dancers must be strong and flexible for a balanced body and great performances. However, dance training and fitness methods are quite divergent between dance styles, dance coaches and teachers. It was verified in the scientific literature that whole-body vibration (WBV) training can improve the vertical jump height (VJH) for dancers from different styles when compared to other interventions or no intervention. The purpose of this study was to verify the effects of WBV training on VJH in dancers, compared to other interventions or no intervention, in randomized controlled trials (RCTs), through a systematic review with meta-analysis. The search used the databases MEDLINE, LILACS, Cochrane, PEDro, Psycinfo and Google Scholar (between 1985 and September, 2019). RCTs that analyzed the effects of WBV training on vertical jump height in dancers, compared to other models of training or no intervention, were included. Four studies met the eligibility criteria; 56 were excluded. The data from the selected studies were extracted by two independent and blind reviewers. Four RCTs that assessed 84 participants in total were included. WBV training promoted significant improvements in VJH, compared to other interventions such as intense stretching, or extra dance classes. WBV training proved to be beneficial even with a short time intervention.
    • Fit to Dance Survey: elements of lifestyle and injury incidence in Chinese dancers

      Dang, Yanan; Koutedakis, Yiannis; Wyon, Matthew (Science & Medicine, Inc., 2020-03-31)
      The Fit to Dance survey has been conducted a number of times using primarily Western participants and has provided foundation data for other studies. The purpose of the current study was to replicate the Fit to Dance 2 survey focusing on features of health and injuries in pre-professional and professional Chinese dancers of different genres. Results revealed that respondents (n=1040) were from Chinese Folk dance (44.4%), Chinese Classical Dance (25.6%), ballet (10.2%) and contemporary dance (9.8%). Compared to the Fit to Dance 2 survey, alcohol consumption (29% vs 82%; p<0.01) and smoking (13% vs 21%; p<0.05) were significantly less in Chinese dancers, but a higher percentage reported using weight reducing eating plans (57% vs 23%; p<0.01) or having psychological issues with food (27% vs 24%; p<0.05). Reported injuries in a 12-month period prior to data collection were significantly lower in the current survey (49% vs 80%; p<0.01). The type of injury (muscle and joint/ligament) and perceived cause of injury (fatigue, overwork and reoccurrence of an old injury) were the same in both the current and previous survey. Mean injury rate for the studied 12-month period ranged from 4.9 injuries per dancer (contemporary) to 3.4 injuries per dancer (Chinese Folk dance) which is comparable to previously reported data on western dance populations. This survey has provided the first comprehensive data on the health and injury incidence of Chinese dancers.
    • Growth, maturation and overuse injuries in dance and aesthetic sports: a systematic review

      Kolokythas, Nico; Metsios, George; Dinas, P; Allen, Nick; Galloway, Shaun; Wyon, Matthew (Taylor & Francis, 2021-01-24)
      Overuse injuries are the most prevalent injuries in aesthetic sports, due to the repetitive nature of the training. Evidence of their relationship with growth, maturation, and training load is equivocal. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of these factors on overuse injuries in dance and aesthetic sports. A database search was conducted using standard methods for article identification, selection, and risk of bias appraisal. The eligibility criteria for inclusion in the study consisted of peer-reviewed articles using any type of study design. Twenty-three studies met the criteria. These studies were cross-sectional in design, focusing on dance, gymnastics and diving. Nineteen studies indicated a positive association between growth, maturation, and overuse injuries and a further 6 reported a positive association with training load. There were inconsistencies in how the included studies accounted for important confounding associations of growth and maturation, in addition to showing high or unclear risk of bias. In conclusion, both the quantity and quality of research available on growth, maturation, and training load in association with overuse injuries in dance and aesthetic sports is lacking. The methodological approaches used, combined with the heterogeneity of the investigated populations, lead to equivocal and thus inconclusive results.
    • Injury incidence and severity in professional ballet dancers over three years

      Wyon, Matt; Allen, Nick (University of Wolverhampton, 2014)
      Although the benefits of exercise are well documented, the risk of injury as a result of exercise is also documented. The undertaking of exercise in the form of sport or dance carries a risk of injury. This risk is increased in the professional ranks where increased intensity of exercise coupled with greater exposure periods are noted.Two published systematic reviews of the literature pertaining to musculoskeletal injuries and pain in dancers (up to 2008) indicated that there are still major scientific limitations and biases in the literature reviewed and indicated the need for explicit criteria on injury definition and methods of injury reporting. The reviews did comment on the evidence that musculoskeletal injury is an important issue for all dancers and that there is preliminary evidence that comprehensive injury prevention and management strategies may reduce injuries. The purpose of this single cohort observational study was to document injury incidence and severity in professional ballet dancers over three years including any changes as a result of changes within their medical management. While it is recognised that a randomised control trial would be advocated for an interventional study, due to the demands of this high performance environment this was not feasible. As such, steps were taken to improve the reporting of findings through the utilisation of the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Statement. To date there are two publications in peer reviewed journals as a result of the data collected in this study. In the absence of international consensus on injury data collection in dance the methodology employed in this study was consistent with the International Consensus Statements on injury data collection from sport. Although the incidence of injuries in Year 1 was lower than that in other sports, the results were higher than other studies that have been reported in dance. The reason for this may be due to the use of a more encompassing injury definition. In response to the data and details obtained through the injury audit process changes in the comprehensive medical management of the dancers were implemented. The pre-participation screening was extended and the individual conditioning programmes were structured using the developed Hybrid Intervention Model.The result of the injury auditing indicated a significant reduction in injury incidence in the Year 2, with a further reduction in Year 3. These findings support the results of the systematic reviews in that there is growing evidence that comprehensive injury prevention and management strategies may reduce injuries in dance and that in the absence of stronger evidence there is a strong recommendation for those charged with caring for professional dancers to implement comprehensive medical management programmes.
    • Measurement of the extreme ankle range of motion required by female ballet dancers

      Russell, Jeffrey A.; Kruse, D. W.; Nevill, Alan M.; Koutedakis, Yiannis; Wyon, Matthew A. (Sage, 2010)
      Female ballet dancers require extreme ankle motion, especially plantar flexion, but research about measuring such motion is lacking. The purposes of this study were to determine in a sample of ballet dancers whether non–weight-bearing ankle range of motion is significantly different from the weight-bearing equivalent and whether inclinometric plantar flexion measurement is a suitable substitute for standard plantar flexion goniometry. Fifteen female ballet dancers (5 university, 5 vocational, and 5 professional dancers; age 21 ± 3.0 years) volunteered. Subjects received 5 assessments on 1 ankle: non–weightbearing goniometry dorsiflexion (NDF) and plantar flexion (NPF), weightbearing goniometry in the ballet positions demi-plié (WDF) and en pointe (WPF), and non–weight-bearing plantar flexion inclinometry (IPF). Mean NDF was significantly lower than WDF (17° ± 1.3° vs 30° ± 1.8°, P < .001). NPF (77° ± 2.5°) was significantly lower than both WPF (83° ± 2.2°, P = .01) and IPF (89° ± 1.6°, P < .001), and WPF was significantly lower than IPF (P = .013). Dorsiflexion tended to decrease and plantar flexion tended to increase with increasing ballet proficiency. The authors conclude that assessment of extreme ankle motion in female ballet dancers is challenging, and goniometry and inclinometry appear to measure plantar flexion differently.
    • Pathoanatomy of posterior ankle impingement in ballet dancers

      Russell, Jeffrey A.; Kruse, David W.; Koutedakis, Yiannis; McEwan, Islay M.; Wyon, Matthew A. (Wiley, 2010)
      Dance is a high performance athletic activity that leads to great numbers of injuries, particularly in the ankle region. One reason for this is the extreme range of ankle motion required of dancers, especially females in classical ballet where the en pointe and demi-pointe positions are common. These positions of maximal plantar flexion produce excessive force on the posterior ankle and may result in impingement, pain, and disability. Os trigonum and protruding lateral talar process are two common and well-documented morphological variations associated with posterior ankle impingement in ballet dancers. Other less well-known conditions, of both bony and soft tissue origins, can also elicit symptoms. This article reviews the anatomical causes of posterior ankle impingement that commonly affect ballet dancers with a view to equipping healthcare professionals for improved effectiveness in diagnosing and treating this pathology in a unique type of athlete. Clin. Anat. 23:613-621, 2010. (c) 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
    • Physiological demands of performance in Classical Ballet and their relationships with injury and aesthetic components

      Wyon, Matthew A.; Twitchett, Emily (University of Wolverhampton, 2009)
      At performance level, classical ballet is a form of high-intensity, intermittent exercise, requiring a strong aerobic foundation. Existing training methods have remained largely unchanged over the past century, resulting in poorly conditioned dancers who are prone to injury. The purpose of the thesis was to examine, through several inter-related studies, the demands of training and performance at professional level, and whether fitness levels of classical ballet dancers affect both aesthetic components of performance, and injury. All participants were either in the final year of elite vocational training or were professional dancers. Initial, observational, investigations indicated that both rehearsal and performance posed a variety of demands on different ranks of dancer within a company’s structure, and depicted daily workloads which supported previous complaints of fatigue. Before examination of fitness or performance could begin, novel tools to assess both aerobic fitness, and performance proficiency in ballet dancers were designed and tested for reliability and validity. Both tests met with test-retest reliability standards, with 95% limits of agreement of ±6.2 ml.kg.-1min-1 for the aerobic test, and ±1.5 points (out of 10) for the performance rating scale. High overall performance scores were then best predicted by high jumps of both legs and good active flexibility of the left leg (F=4.142, df=3, P=0.042). Following this, an intervention study investigated the effects of a period of supplemental fitness training, designed to enhance aerobic fitness, jump height and local muscular endurance, on the performance scores of a randomly assigned group of dancers. A control group continued with regular training. Performance scores at the outset of the study were compared to those following the intervention period. Overall scores for the intervention group increased by significantly more than those of the control group, (p=0.03), with greatest gains seen for control and skill, indicating that supplemental fitness training, specifically targeting aerobic and local muscular endurance, can help improve performance, particularly elements such as control and skill. Finally, two separate studies confirmed that low aerobic fitness and low body fat percentage were related to injury in ballet dancers. Further research needs to focus on fully ascertaining the physical demands of ballet, and whether better training dancers to meet these demands results in enhanced performance and reduction in injury.
    • The cardiorespiratory, anthropometric, and performance characteristics of an international/national touring ballet company.

      Wyon, Matthew A.; Deighan, Martine A.; Nevill, Alan M.; Doherty, Michael; Morrison, Sharon L.; Allen, Nick; Jobson, Simon A.; George, Simon R. (Human Kinetics Pub, 2007)
      This study examined the cardiorespiratory and anthropometric indices of professional classical ballet dancers in relation to company seniority, gender, and supplemental training. Forty-nine participants from an international touring company carried out a peak Vo(2) test and vertical jump test. Anthropometric measurements and supplemental training activities were also recorded for each participant. Statistical analyses showed significant differences between gender and dancer seniority levels. Gender differences were seen for jump height (M = 52.7 +/- 7.12 cm; F = 37.6 +/- 5.32 cm) and peak Vo(2) (M = 49.32 +/- 3.72 ml.kg(-1).min(-1); F = 43.3 +/- 5.16 ml.kg(-1).min(-1)). Differences were also seen between dancer levels for peak Vo(2) (artist = 46.47 +/- 4.67 ml.kg(-1).min(-1); first artist = 42.72 +/- 5.81 ml.kg(-1).min(-1); soloist = 43.38 +/- 7.14 ml.kg(-1).min(-1); principal = 49.04 +/- 3.63 ml.kg(-1).min(-1)) and jump height (artist = 42.0 +/- 9.11 cm; first artist = 50.33 +/- 11.65 cm; soloist = 45.6 +/- 9.78 cm; principal = 44.67 +/- 9.53 cm). Pairwise post hoc comparisons showed that corps and principals had significantly greater relative peak Vo(2) than first artists and soloists (p < 0.05), while soloists and first artists had significantly greater jump heights compared to principals and corps (p < 0.05). Analysis of covariance modeling indicated that the self-reported mode of supplemental training had no association with relative peak Vo(2) or the percentage at which ventilatory threshold occurred. The present study has provided further insight into the cardiorespiratory profiles of classical ballet dancers, where soloists have significantly greater power capacities compared to principals and corps, who in turn had significantly greater aerobic power. These data can help guide strength and conditioning intervention strategies that need to take into account the nuances of the different seniority levels within a dance company.
    • The dancer as a performing athlete: physiological considerations.

      Koutedakis, Yiannis; Jamurtas, Athanasios Z. (Adis International, 2004)
      The physical demands placed on dancers from current choreography and performance schedules make their physiology and fitness just as important as skill development. However, even at the height of their professional careers, dancers' aerobic power, muscular strength, muscular balance, bone and joint integrity are the 'Achilles heels' of the dance-only selection and training system. This partly reflects the unfounded view, shared by sections of the dance world, that any exercise training that is not directly related to dance would diminish dancers' aesthetic appearances. Given that performing dance itself elicits only limited stimuli for positive fitness adaptations, it is not surprising that professional dancers often demonstrate values similar to those obtained from healthy sedentary individuals of comparable age in key fitness-related parameters. In contrast, recent data on male and female dancers revealed that supplementary exercise training can lead to improvements of such fitness parameters and reduce incidents of dance injuries, without interfering with key artistic and aesthetic requirements. It seems, however, that strict selection and training regimens have succeeded in transforming dance to an activity practised by individuals who have selectively developed different flexibility characteristics compared with athletes. Bodyweight targets are normally met by low energy intakes, with female dance students and professional ballerinas reported to consume below 70% and 80% of the recommended daily allowance of energy intake, respectively, while the female athlete 'triad' of disordered eating, amenorrhoea and osteoporosis is now well recognised and is seen just as commonly in dancers.An awareness of these factors will assist dancers and their teachers to improve training techniques, to employ effective injury prevention strategies and to determine better physical conditioning. However, any change in the traditional training regimes must be approached cautiously to ensure that the aesthetic content of the dance is not affected by new training techniques. Since physiological aspects of performing dance have been viewed primarily in the context of ballet, further scientific research on all forms of dance is required.
    • The influence of winter vitamin D supplementation on muscle function and injury occurrence in elite ballet dancers: A controlled study.

      Wyon, Matthew A.; Koutedakis, Yiannis; Wolman, Roger; Nevill, Alan M.; Allen, Nick (Elsevier, 2013-04-22)
      OBJECTIVES: Athletes who train indoors during the winter months exhibit low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] concentrations due to a lack of sunlight exposure. This has been linked to impaired exercise performance. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of oral vitamin D3 supplementation on selected physical fitness and injury parameters in elite ballet dancers. DESIGN: Controlled prospective study. METHODS: 24 elite classical ballet dancers (intervention n=17; control n=7) participated in a controlled 4-month oral supplementation of vitamin D3 (2000IU per day). Isometric muscular strength and vertical jump height were measured pre and post intervention. Injury occurrence during the intervention period was also recorded by the in-house medical team. Repeated measures ANOVA and Mann-Whitney-U statistical tests were used and significance was set at p≤0.05. RESULTS: Significant increases were noted for the intervention group for isometric strength (18.7%, p<0.01) and vertical jump (7.1%, p<0.01). The intervention group also sustained significantly less injuries than the controls during the study period (p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Oral supplementation of vitamin D3 during the winter months has beneficial effects on muscular performance and injury occurrence in elite ballet dancers.
    • Thigh Peak Torques and Lower-Body Injuries in Dancers

      Koutedakis, Yiannis; Khaloula, M.; Pacy, P.; Murphy, Marie H.; Dunbar, G. (International Association for Dance Medicine & Science, 1997)
      The purpose of this study was to identify possible relationships between the sum of knee flexion and extension peak torques and the severity of lower-body injuries in professional dancers. Twenty male (age 26.6 (+/- 6.0) years) and 22 female (age 27.1 (+/- 5.4) years) ballet and contemporary dancers reported one or more low-back, pelvis, leg, knee and foot injuries. The severity of injuries was established by recording the days off dance activities. Subjects were then monitored on a Cybex II or a KIN-CON isokinetic dynamometer. Knee flexion and extension peak torques were obtained bilaterally during three normal contractions at the velocities of 1.04 and 4.19 rad/sec. No musculoskeletal injuries were reported at the time of data collection. At 1.04 rad/sec, results revealed significant correlation coefficients between relative thigh peak torques - expressed in Nm/kg fat free mass (FFM) - and prevalence of low extremity injuries. These findings suggest that the lower thethigh-power output, the greater the degree of injury. Female dancers demonstrated higher correlation coefficients (r = -0.70; p < 0.005) than their male counterparts (r = -0.61; p < 0.01). However, no such correlations were found at the angular velocity of 4.19 rad/sec, nor when low-back injuries and thigh-power outputs were considered at both velocities. The main conclusions are: a ) low thigh power outputs are likely to be associated with the severity of low extremity injuries, and b) such relationships are better identified at lower compared to higher isokinetic velocities
    • Time motion and video analysis of classical ballet and contemporary dance performance

      Wyon, Matthew A.; Twitchett, E; Angioi, Manuela; Clarke, F.; Metsios, G; Koutedakis, Yiannis (Thieme, Stuttgart, 2011-11-12)
      Video analysis has become a useful tool in the preparation for sport performance and its use has highlighted the diff erent physiological demands of seemingly similar sports and playing positions. The aim of the current study was to examine the performance diff erences between classical ballet and contemporary dance. In total 93 dance performances (48 ballet and 45 contemporary) were analysed for exercise intensity, changes in direction and specifi c discrete skills (e. g., jumps, lifts). Results revealed signifi - cant diff erences between the 2 dance forms for exercise intensity (p < 0.001), changes in direction (p < 0.001) and discrete skills (p < 0.05) with gender diff erences noted in the latter (p < 0.05). Ballet was characterised by longer periods at rest (38 s.min − 1 ) andhightoveryhighexerciseintensities (9 s.min − 1 ), whilst contemporary dance featured more continuous moderate exercise intensities (27 s.min − 1 ). These diff erences have implications on the energy systems utilised during performance with ballet potentially stressing the anaerobic system more than contemporary dance. The observed high rates in the discrete skills in ballet (5 jumps.min − 1 ; 2 lifts.min − 1 ) can cause local muscular damage, particularly in relatively weaker individuals. In conclusion, classical ballet and contemporary dance performances are as signifi cantly different in the underlying physical demands placed on their performers as the artistic aspects of the choreography.